Hong Kong Shue Yan University, North Point, Hong Kong, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong, Kwan, D.S., Yu, FL.T. 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(Ed. During his presidency between 2001 and 2009, Bush intended to exemplify Christian values at home and aboard and divide the world into good and evil. Avalos, Hector (2005) Fighting Words: The Origin of Religious Violence, New York: Prometheus Books. Yu, Fu-Lai Tony (2014) Chinas Economic Change in Entrepreneurial Perspective: Mao Zedong (Transformative Entrepreneurship) versus Deng Xiaoping (Adaptive Entrepreneurship), International Journal of China Studies, 5(3), 599626. Indias government needs to take appropriate measures to ensure that all Muslims are fully integrated into society. What cultural violence makes this structural violence seem acceptable? The conflicts between the United States and other countries, specifically the Arab world, are the struggle between Christianity and Islam for global hegemony. Islamic (Student) Association of Cairo University (1982) Lessons from Iran, from John J. Donohus and John L. Esposito (eds.) Hall, John R. (2003) Religion and Violence: Social Processes in Comparative Perspective, in Michele Dillion (ed.) He believed that sharias law and caliphate should be (re-)established and all Muslims had a sacred duty to establish sharia rule in the world by jihad. Kippenberg, Hans G. (2011) Reading Religious Violence in terms of Theories of Social Action, in Wilhelm Heitmeyer, Heinz-Gerhard Haupt, Stefan Malthaner and Andrea Kirschner (eds.) Berger, Peter L. (1967) The Sacred Canopy: Elements of a Sociological Theory of Religion, Garden City: Doubleday. Religious Landscape Survey: Religious Affiliation: Diverse and Dynamic, from http://religions.pewforum.org/pdf/report-religious-landscape-study-full.pdf, retrieved on 1 November, 2012. Some are the perpetrators of violence, some are working to end violence and promote peace, many more are bystanders, who may build up cultural violence, cultural peace, or even both. Send us feedback about these examples. : Doubleday. Saikal, Amin (2003) Islam and the West: Conflict or Cooperation? All rights reserved. On September 11, 2001, al-Qaeda launched four suicide attacks in the United States. People who use religion to create conflict simply multiply this belief in their own superiority tenfold. The violence has been coordinated and serious, and the UN Human Rights Office has stated that Myanmar is likely guilty of crimes against humanity or even ethnic cleansing.. Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi studied in Switzerland and graduated in a Tehran military school in 1938. It claimed that Alawites were heretics who prepared to destroy Muslims. Religious extremists often describe their actions as saving the world from evil out-groups. In other words, they believe that they have only done wrong if the result of their action is what they explicitly intended. In the midst of violence in Syria, Afghanistan and Africa, nuclear program of Iran and the rise of extremism, Ban Ki-moon, the former General Secretary of the United Nations, raised the issues of widespread insecurity and injustice, inequality and intolerance. As for the Muslim country of Bangladesh, its government is unwilling to spoil its relations with India, and therefore avoids commenting on Indias treatment of its Muslim population, preferring to maintain a strict neutrality on this issue. They can also inspire nearly unfathomable acts of love and peacebuilding. ISIS began to attack in northern and eastern Syria again. Geneva Declaration Secretariat (2011) Geneva Declaration: Global Burden of Armed Violence 2011, from http://www.genevadeclaration.org/measurability/global-burden-of-armed-violence/global-burden-of-armed-violence-2011.html, retrieved on 21 June, 2012. In inter-religious conflicts, the conflict parties differ in their religious affiliation - for example, Christians and Muslims. BBC (2017 December 6) Jerusalem: Trump Recognition Kiss of Death for Peace, from http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-42250399, retrieved on 30 March 2018. In 2002, Bush declared preemptive attack on axis of evil, namely, Iraq, Iran and North Korea. Syria claims to be a secular state but, under the Syrian Constitution, the religion of the President has to be Islam and Islamic jurisprudence is the source of legislation. Regardless, there is no doubt that much of the Buddhist religious leadership of Myanmar has promoted violence against Muslims in the region. In this section, we formulate a new theory of social construction of religious reality based on the arguments given by Alfred Schutz's sociological philosophy (Schutz 1976), which was later developed by Berger and Luckmann ().This theory will be applied to explain the origin of religion and hence understand religious conflicts. WhatdoChris- tian,MuslimandHindustudentsperceiveaspossiblecausesofreligiouscon- flict? Many public organizations closed down and citizens were only allowed to go out of their homes except where this was absolutely essential. And how is this conflict being affected by the COVID-19 pandemic? Interreligious. Merriam-Webster.com Dictionary, Merriam-Webster, https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/interreligious. Co. Human Security Report Project (2011) Home Security Report 2009/10: The Causes of Peace and the Shrinking Costs of War, New York: Oxford University Press. Sadjadpour, Karim (2009) Reading Khamenei: The World View of Irans Most Powerful Leader, Washington, DC: Carnegie Endowment for International Peace. Syrian Observatory for Human Rights (24 November 2017) Over 340,000 killed in Syria war, from http://www.syriahr.com/en/?p=79337, retrieved on 21 May 2018. Waugh, Earl H. (2005) Dispatches from Memory, in Steven Engler, Gregory Price Grieve (eds.) It declared itself as the Islamic State in Iraq and the Levant (ISIL). New York Times (2005, 27 October) Ahmadinejad: Israel must be wiped off the map, https://www.nytimes.com/2005/10/26/international/middleeast/irans-president-says-israel-must-be-wiped-off-the.html, retrieved on 10 September, 2012. Appleby, R. Scott (2002) History in the Fundamentalist Imagination, Journal of American History, 89 (2): 498511. (Most of the time.). What does the future hold in store for Indias Muslims? Handbook of the Sociology of Religion, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. The COVID-19 epidemic, which began in 2020, has halted the escalation of the conflict between Indias Hindus and Muslims. What do the Muslims in the neighboring states of Pakistan and Bangladesh think about the attacks on their fellow believers? From Salmon Rushdies The Satanic Verses published in 1988 to anti-Islamic video Innocence of Muslims of 2012, Muslims condemn the West of blaspheming Allah and corrupting Islamic communities. In: Yu, FL.T., Kwan, D.S. He developed a faith-based American policy (Smith 2006). The Muslims believe that He is God, the One. (1934/1961) The Theory of Economic Development, New York: Oxford University Press. But it is likely that after the pandemic-related restrictions are lifted, the religious clashes will begin again. de Vries, Hent (2001) Religion and Violence: Philosophical Perspectives from Kant to Derrida, Baltimore, MD: Johns Hopkins University Press. Introduction and Overview p.3 2. Interview with Aung San Suu Kyithe State Counselor of Burma, Nobel Peace Prize Winner, and a Theravada Buddhistwhere she responds to accusations of ethnic cleansing against Muslims in Myanmar: http://bit.ly/2sfZyDo. Islam in Transition: Muslim Perspectives, New York: Oxford University Press, pp. https://www.newyorker.com/news/news-desk/the-dilemma-of-syrias-alawites, retrieved on 18 April 2018. https://www.theguardian.com/world/2013/jun/08/middle-east-full-blown-religious-war, retrieved on 23 January 2018. https://www.washingtonpost.com/news/democracy-post/wp/2018/02/16/in-long-secular-turkey-sharia-is-gradually-taking-over/?utm_term=.dc9f4350ee5e, retrieved on 15 June 2018. These elements of the Buddhist community have justified their actions using Buddhist theology, claiming that violence is acceptable if it is done in defense of their religion. While Hindus living in the new state of Pakistan were regarded with hatred and large numbers of them were forced to migrate to India, in India Muslims were treated with a greater degree of tolerance. Anyone you share the following link with will be able to read this content: Sorry, a shareable link is not currently available for this article. The future for Indias Muslims appears hazy and uncertain. ISIS recruited Sunni jihadists. What a Billion Muslims Really Think, New York, Gallup Press. The Mountbatten plan to divide British India into a Muslim state, Pakistan, and a Hindu one, India, which was set out and implemented in 1947, failed to take into account a large number of ethnic and political factors, and this failure led to a great deal of bloodshed and an endless stream of refugees. Weber, Max ([1925]1978) Economy and Society, Berkeley: University of California Press. 125184. How does the situation in Myanmar make simplistic statements like these problematic? For a full elaboration of this theory, see Chap. Nearly 90% of the country is Buddhist, and most are members of the majority ethnic community known as Burmans. The ethnic and religious violence in Myanmar is incredibly complex; the traumas of colonialism, poverty, the recent transition from a military government to a more democratic state, and the global war on terror all play major roles in shaping the conflict. (2012) The Arab Revolutions of 2011: Promise, Risk, and Uncertainty, in Thomas A. Johnson (ed. A quiz to (peak/peek/pique) your interest. However, religions are powerful forces. One monk, U Withuta, housed over 800 Muslims in his monastery during anti-Muslim riots, telling the mob that approached that they would have to kill him to reach those he protected inside. (eds) Contemporary Issues in International Political Economy. Control of Violence: Historical and International Perspectives on Violence in Modern Societies, New York: Springer, pp. ), Making Sense of Suicide Missions, Oxford: Oxford University Press. BBC (2013 December 19) Sunnis and Shiite in the Middle East, http://www.bbc.com/news/world-middle-east-25434060, retrieved on 29 March 2018. Macon, GA: Merce. Gutin, Nicole (2009) Religious Ideology in American Politics: A History, Jefferson, N.C.: McFarland & Company. They believe in a Theravadan Buddhist doctrine that states that only their intention affects their karma. Pew Research Center (2012) The Worlds Muslims: Unity and Diversity, from http://www.pewforum.org/2012/08/09/the-worlds-muslims-unity-and-diversity-executive-summary/, retrieved on 14 February, 2018. Meacham, Jon (2006) American Gospel: God, the Founding Fathers, and the Making of a Nation, New York: Random House. : Schenkman Pub. The proportion of Muslims in the country, which was recorded as 14.25% in the 2011 census, is increasing year by year, and the government, dominated by Hindus, is unwilling to face up to this reality. The conflict in Northern Ireland, which has killed thousands, has political and religious roots that are centuries old. However, while Buddhist nationalists have clearly stoked violence and legitimized Islamophobic actions, there are many Buddhists who have tried to promote peace with their Muslim neighbors. Office of Medical Education, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Shatin, Hong Kong, Department of Economics and Finance, Hong Kong Shue Yan University, North Point, Hong Kong, You can also search for this author in While many monks in Myanmar seem to support and even advocate for violence against their Muslim neighbors, there are others who are constantly working to end the violence. RELIGION AND PUBLIC LIFE, Harvard Divinity School14 DivinityAvenue, Cambridge, Massachusetts 02138. my.hds |Harvard Divinity School |Harvard University |Privacy | Accessibility | Digital Accessibility | Trademark Notice | Reporting Copyright InfringementCopyright 2023 President and Fellows of Harvard College. Institute for Economics and Peace (2017) Global Terrorism Index 2017, from http://visionofhumanity.org/app/uploads/2017/11/Global-Terrorism-Index-2017.pdf, retrieved on 13 March 2018. Transformative leaders create new ideologies, bring about breakthrough and transform traditional religion into a brand-new society. (2019). Shiism, Resistance, and Revolution, Boulder, Colorado: Westview Press, pp. This decision was criticized by Indias Muslim community. As always, when thinking about religion and conflict, maintain a focus on how religion is internally diverse, always evolving and changing, and always embedded in specific cultures. ), Power, National Security, and Transformational Global Events, Boca Raton: CRC Press/Taylor & Francis, pp. For example, one law promoted by monks in 2013 declared that Buddhist women could not marry a man of another faith without official permission from local authorities. Ethnic minoritiessuch as the Chin, Kachin, Karin, and Rohingyainclude significant populations of Christians and Muslims. Examples are couples and families in which the members belong to different religions, as well as regions or countries in which the inhabitants belong to different religious communities or in which migration has changed the previous religious landscape. bin Laden, Osama (1998) Jihad Against Jews and Crusaders, from http://www.fas.org/irp/world/para/docs/980223-fatwa.htm, retrieved on 29 December 2011. DeMar, Gary (2008) Americas Christian History: The Untold Story, Powder Springs: America Vision, Inc. Elster, Jon (2006) Motivations and Beliefs in Suicide Missions, in Gambetta, D. 1. For full text of the opening address in the 67th United Nations General Assembly, see http://www.un.org/apps/news/infocus/sgspeeches/statments_full.asp?statID=1660, retrieved on 26 September 2012. Kramer, Martin (1987) Syrias Alawites and Shiism, in Martin Kramer (ed.) Last month, the jewelry brand Tanishq was forced to withdraw an advertisement built around a touching scene of, Throughout his four-day visit, Francis has delivered a message of, Parts of the Mesopotamian site of Ur, where Francis will hold an, Shamseer Ibrahim, a 36-year-old Muslim activist, said that state endorsement of anti-Muslim violence was damaging the democratic and secular values of India, whose long history of, The award recognizes individuals and organizations that promote, The university introduced three new masters degree programs this fall in, Francis did, however, wear a white face mask throughout an, Post the Definition of interreligious to Facebook, Share the Definition of interreligious on Twitter, Palter, Dissemble, and Other Words for Lying, Skunk, Bayou, and Other Words with Native American Origins, Words For Things You Didn't Know Have Names, Vol. Learn a new word every day. In August 2021 the Indian pharmaceutical company Panacea Biotech announced in a press conference that it planned to produce about 25 million doses of Russias Sputnik V vaccine under license. Appleby, R. Scott (2000) The Ambivalence of the Sacred: Religion, Violence, and Reconciliation, New York: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. How does religion cause conflict? Bloomberg Business News (2015 October 19) Putin officials said to admit real Syria goal is far broader, https://www.bloomberg.com/news/articles/2015-10-19/putin-officials-said-to-admit-real-syrian-goals-are-far-broader; Retrieved 19 October 2018. 246250. The lockdown has just put these outbreaks on hold for a while. 7. One Buddhist nationalist monk, U Wirathu, was even described on the cover of Time Magazine as The Face of Buddhist Terror in 2013. Reuters (2017, 20 January) Irans Revolutionary Guards reaps economic rewards in Syria, from https://www.reuters.com/article/us-mideast-crisis-syria-iran/irans-revolutionary-guards-reaps-economic-rewards-in-syria-idUSKBN1531TO, retrieved on 4 June 2018. ISIL was rooted in Iraq. Huntington, Samuel P. (1996) The Clash of Civilizations and the Remaking of World Order, New York: Simon & Schuster Touchtone. Larsson, J.P. (2004) Understanding Religious Violence: Thinking Outside the Box on Terrorism, Aldershot: Ashgate. 245266. Some monasteries have organized humanitarian aid for Muslims who have been displaced by the violence. Later, President Woodrow Wilson spoke to the public that America was born a Christian nation (quoted in DeMar 2008: 3). This paper summarizes the overall findings of the seminar, noting that although there are some examples of conscious competition and conflict, more predominant is "religious coexistence." What examples there are of competition and conflict is at least equally divided between inter-group and inner-group conflict. UNICEF (2018) No end in sight to seven years of war in Syria: children with disabilities at risk of exclusion, from https://www.unicef.org/media/media_102745.html, retrieved on 13 March 2018. The 969 Movement, a complex Buddhist nationalist movement, has promoted a Buy Buddhist campaign, encouraging citizens to buy goods only from other Buddhists, to target the economic well-being of religious minoritiesespecially Muslims. Paradigms of the Post-Cold War World, Foreign Affairs, 72(4): 186194. Tax calculation will be finalised at checkout. In a message written by President Harry Truman in 1947, he claimed that [t]his is a Christian Nation (http://www.presidency.ucsb.edu/ws/?pid=12746, retrieved on 30 August 2012). They acted on the basis of nationalist and racist backgrounds, and none of them claimed to be a religious person. However, despite the fact that they are allowed to practice their faith openly and worship in mosques without restriction, their access to education was limited, and those working in government service were deprived of promotion opportunities. Buddhist sermons regularly include Islamophobic messages such as unsubstantiated rumors of Muslim violence against Buddhists or Muslim plots to take over the country and destroy Buddhism. However, inter-religious relations can comprise very different qualities. Palgrave Macmillan, Singapore. How long has this conflict between Hindus and Muslims in India been unfolding? Otherwise, the religious conflicts that afflict India will get worse year by year, causing deep divisions in society and preventing the state from developing. Berger, Peter L. and Luckmann, Thomas (1966) The Social Construction of Reality: A Treatise in the Sociology of Knowledge, Harmondsworth: Penguin. After the demolition of the Islamic State in 2017, some ISIS fighters joined the Free Syrian Army and Turkish army. Part 2, Free Inquiry, 24(5), 1112. He was the 17th son in a building contractor family. These eight major military expeditions originated in Western Europe between 1096 and 1270 (during the Middle Ages) with the purpose of recapturing Palestine from the Muslims because it was the area where Jesus had lived. World Bank (2011a) World Development Report 2011: Conflict, Security, and Development, Washington, DC: The World Bank. The former US President George W. Bush was a conservative evangelical. Indias government has imposed strict quarantine measures and is trying to limit the number of infections. Copyright 2023 The President and Fellows of Harvard College, Religion and Society Graduate Certificate (Harvard Extension School). Institute for Economics and Peace (2012) Global Peace Index, from http://www.visionofhumanity.org/wp-content/uploads/2012/06/2012-Global-Peace-Index-Report.pdf, retrieved on 14 June, 2012. But sooner or later the pandemic will ease up. This case study was created by Kristofer Rhude, MDiv 18, under the editorial direction of Dr. Diane L. Moore, faculty director of Religion and Public Life. Adaptive leaders enhance a better coordination among religious and sectarian leaders, thus entailing peace in concord with different religions. 2. Petr Konovalov, a political observer, exclusively for the online magazine New Eastern Outlook. This new concept is illustrated by three cases of religious and political conflicts in the Middle East, namely, (1) the conflict between the United States and Iran, (2) the Sunni-Shiite sectarian conflict and (3) the Syrian War.
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